Long-term changes in population levels had significant effects on Europe's economy and society. During the growth phase from 1000 to 1300, population rose from 42 million to 73 million. This expansion was accompanied by growth in agriculture, trade, and towns. Better food meant longer lifespans, with Europeans living 10 years longer by the thirteenth century.

However, population growth eventually outstripped resources, leading to severe famines between 1315 and 1317. Later, depopulation caused by catastrophes resulted in a major shortage of labour. This created serious imbalances between agriculture and manufacture. Agricultural prices dropped due to fewer buyers, while wage rates increased by 250% in England. The surviving labour force could demand twice their earlier wages, causing immense social dislocation.