The nineteenth century witnessed the emergence of nationalism as a powerful force that transformed Europe. Nations developed through diverse processes, as seen in the cases of Germany and France.

In Germany, industrialisation occurred during the nineteenth century, leading to the growth of towns and commercial classes. New social groups emerged, including a working-class population and middle classes comprising industrialists, businessmen, and professionals. The educated, liberal middle classes popularized ideas of national unity following the abolition of aristocratic privileges. The Frankfurt Parliament represented an important milestone in German national development.

France similarly experienced industrialisation during the nineteenth century. The growth of industrial production and trade led to the expansion of towns and commercial classes whose existence was based on production for the market. French revolutionaries had earlier taken steps to create a sense of collective identity among the people, laying important groundwork for national development.

The broader process of nation development involved the emergence of the nation-state replacing multi-national dynastic empires. A nation-state was characterized by citizens, not just rulers, developing a sense of common identity and shared history. This commonness was forged through struggles, through the actions of leaders and common people. By the last quarter of the nineteenth century, nationalism had evolved from idealistic liberal-democratic sentiment to a narrower creed.